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The Reciprocal Links between Evolutionary-Ecological Sciences and Environmental Ethics

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Clé publique

doi:10.2307/1313650

Auteurs

Ricardo Rozzi

Année déclarée

1999

Langue déclarée

en

Type source

article

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Institutions déclarées par la source

American Institute of Biological Sciences · University of Connecticut

Résumé documentaire — langue originale

Confronted with the current environmental crisis, the academic community faces a conceptual and practical problem of dissociation: Ecologists approach nature with the aim of understanding it, whereas environmental ethicists approach nature asking how we should relate to it, or inhabit it. Ecology looks for the “is” of nature, and environmental ethics seeks an “ought” with respect to nature. How can these still largely disconnected and yet parallel courses be bridged? How can the is of ecologists and the ought of eco-philosophers be interrelated? More basically, how can the links between the cognitive-scientific and the practical-ethical spheres be recovered? To describe my approach to these questions, I begin with an illustration. Figure 1a depicts at its center my thesis: that the ways in which humans dwell in the natural world inspire the ways in which we understand, explain, and look at the natural world. Conversely, the ways in which we represent nature (e.g., through scientific theories) constitute a kind of text or scenario that inspires our attitudes, behaviors, and ways of inhabiting nature. Therefore, changes in the scientific sphere suggest changes in the ethical sphere, and vice versa. If the way of dwelling in the natural world is viewed as an environmental ethos, we can in a broad sense refer to this ethos as an environmental ethic. If the way of understanding the natural world is called a science, we can broadly refer to this understanding as evolutionary-ecological sciences. With these definitions, the initial thesis illustrated in Figure 1a can be reformulated by affirming that environmental ethics and environmental sciences influence each other in a reciprocal and dynamic way. Ethics and science establish a dialectic interrelationship that evolves historically through mutual and successive modifications. Reciprocal influences between evolutionary-ecological sciences and environmental ethics, (a) The ways in which humans understand the natural world (sciences) and dwell in it (environmental ethics) are intimately linked by reciprocal influences (broad gray arrows) that take place within two broader environments: the cultural world and the natural world. The short double arrows crossing the borders of each circle emphasize the openness of each domain to influences occurring among all domains. The arrowheads in each of the circles indicate the dynamic character of each domain, (b) Thu concept can be elaborated based on the case of Darwin's evolutionary theory. Solid arrows refer to influences on Darwin's evolutionary theory that derive from culture (1), observation of the natural world (2), and ethics (3). Dotted arrows indicate influences that Darwinian theory has had on ethics (4), modern culture (5), and human impact on the natural environment (6). The continuous and reciprocal influences between ecological theories and ethical norms respecting nature take place within two broader environments: the cultural world and the natural world (Figure 1a). The reciprocal and dynamic influences between environmental ethics and sciences are, therefore, open to the influences of broader contexts. Both sociological and natural phenomena exert significant influences on the genesis of scientific conceptions of and ethical attitudes toward nature. Even more, as Figure 1a shows, the natural world constitutes a broader environment in which culture occurs. In this article, I illustrate the reciprocal relationships between sciences and environmental ethics by examining the Darwinian theory of evolution and discussing its implications for ecologists and ethicists. Darwinian theory represents only an illustrative case; similar analyses could be done for other ecological theories, such as ecosystem theory or vegetation succession. However, the Darwinian theory of evolution is ideal for discussion of the interrelationships between ecological sciences and ethics, for three reasons. First, the social influences and historical circumstances that led Darwin to formulate his theory of natural selection have been examined and debated more than those leading to any other theory in the history of biology. Second, Darwinian theory constitutes a foundational basis for major strains of both ecology and environmental ethics. Third, Darwinian theory can stimulate contrasting environmental values and attitudes. It can encourage respectful treatment of the natural environment by weakening anthropocentrism in modern society with metaphors such as the “ecological web of life” and “the tree of the origin of life.” But it can also favor patterns of overconsumption and exploitation of the natural environment by strengthening individualism and the idea of progress with metaphors such as the “struggle for existence” and “natural selection.” To understand the complex dialectic between environmental ethics and ecological-evolutionary sciences that take place within broader cultural and natural environments, I illustrate the case of Darwinian theory by modifying Figure 1a into Figure 1b. I begin by describing how culture, the natural world, and ethics influenced Darwin's formulation of the evolutionary theory (Figure 1b, arrows 1,2 and 3, respectively). Then I analyze how Darwin's theory has, in turn, influenced ethics, modern culture, and human impact on the natural environment (Figure 1b, arrows 4, 5 and 6, respectively). Finally, I discuss how an understanding of the reciprocal influences between science and ethics contributes to a cultural transformation in our modes of viewing and relating to the natural world. Three distinct kinds of cultural influence were of particular relevance for Darwin's evolutionary conception: the philosophy of David Hume, the economy of Thomas Malthus, and the practice of artificial selection (Figure 1b, arrow 1). It is particularly significant that the basic notion of evolution came into Darwin's family via philosophy. The notion of evolution was suggested to Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, by the British philosopher Hume (Harrison 1971). In Erasmus Darwin's first unequivocal evolutionary pronouncement—in a paragraph of his main work, Zoonomia—he quoted from Hume's posthumously published Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779): “The late Mr. Hume…concludes that the world itself might have been generated rather than created” (Darwin 1794, pp. 245-246). Interestingly, Hume (1779) admitted in his Dialogues that he did not have the data to support his conclusion. Eighty years later, through the development of the theory of biological evolution, Charles Darwin—who at a young age carefully read his grandfather's Zoonomia (see Darwin 1892)—furnished the data requested by Hume. In this manner, the Darwinian theory of a common origin for all living forms was stimulated by Hume's philosophy (Huntley 1972); Darwinian theory provided, in turn, the empirical support requested by Hume's evolutionary thesis that criticized a prevailing creationist in the also to have stimulated Darwin's of the In the the of Darwin the only in the is in this of with its been by the into a forms or into and this has on to the of from a forms and have and are (Darwin the influence of his philosopher the Darwin it to refer to his theory of natural selection in The of and other to have the concept of as evolution from in had it from the philosopher (see of the how philosophy this basic notion for the of the Darwinian theory. broader historical of the and a in the development of the notion of evolution among natural and social sciences and In and Charles the of which the continuous of and the history of the In his the origin and transformation of the and the of which a for the transformation of the and evolutionary social both and an evolutionary that was by a notion of (e.g., the in human from to and from the toward (e.g., the of human history as an evolutionary toward a in which social be In in a historical development of or a evolutionary The of the social influences on the of the theory of biological evolution is historically by the formulation of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and for both Darwin and the of was a major In Darwin to theory in the of the of he that his theory of natural selection the of to the and had that the human at a whereas as at an a “struggle for existence” among humans is Darwin and it on “the and by that “the for all the world from the of more of each are than can that any it in any to have a of and be (Darwin cultural practice that Darwin's of the evolutionary was the practice of artificial In his and (Darwin Darwin to his with and which his that are and stimulated his between artificial and natural Darwin this the of in the that can and the to by nature, and in any and for his and is the which have should not have nature. In the of and the for we the and of (Darwin Darwin's illustrate how he two conceptual and practical of his British economy and artificial not to nature to biological cultural the natural world was by in of that “the Darwinian theory of the for is the from society and its theory of to and have sociological in the for Darwin's formulation of his evolutionary theory his and of the natural world a and Therefore, sociological influences not the development of Darwin's scientific theory. In his Darwin that “The of the has been by the in my and has my (Darwin Figure 1b, arrow can in Darwin's The of the to as Darwin's which his as a and to his theory that were in his major years both the of the at the of the of to illustrate the ecological among and the notion of humans as are in his young the of Darwin in a of and he was and by the of the that the and in his Darwin the through its and in a among the of the and with Darwin's in the paragraph of the of is to an with through the on each other in complex a this for its conceptual and also a of for its With respect to the of human evolution, Darwin's with the his in the between humans and In his Darwin the at on as of we were in a the of this of by the was on a the and as we and a and The the and we and It was the and I I could not have how was the between and it is than between a and as in is a of (Darwin pp. on Darwin such can that are and of the world. It is a common of in of the can how more the be with respect to these or human and from the and of this on the (Darwin It is to that a have at the that is an of biological evolution any other the of such a If Darwin had in the environment of British this of humans in the of he might have of the human as an a of other this the of empirical and in the Darwin's the are can be from as a by which modern society an of nature. The with the was such a for Darwin as to and to In The of (Darwin the constitute the as in the from of Darwin's were to his of a common for humans and other in its its as it look at his understanding of on with In to to and for Darwin was with other and the by and of by Charles his and Darwin was of the relevance of and scientific as in the of his I have that I to the the world the first or of my I was led to to of natural and my of observation were The of the of all the was more as into I had with the first of of which I and the was of the to (Darwin pp. that Darwin both natural history and scientific to have for his his Darwin his empirical and with those of other and he continuous from theories by other of the scientific in his and Darwin for and to those and in the leading to the formulation of his evolutionary Darwin his evolutionary theory by the natural world through empirical and natural history work, carefully on and (e.g., theories (e.g., and social (e.g., artificial and an within his scientific and have debated the between and between “is” and the eco-philosophers such as have to a environmental ethics that is by the is of ecology (e.g., However, a of the between sciences and ethics to not only from is to also from ought to To understand the influences of ethical conceptions on a scientific Darwin a evolutionary theory to two contrasting ethical the theory of and the notion of the for (Figure 1b, arrow In his concept of human social evolution in The of Darwin quoted and elaborated the conceptions of of the Hume and (see and Darwin, as and within to those Darwin that and the of have been through natural for those which the of the and the of Hume not on on or Darwin's on as in the case of the notion of evolution British a conceptual basis for Darwin's evolutionary In turn, the of reciprocal Darwin biological and evolutionary support to this major and more ethical influence on Darwin's theory has been the ethics of as in the of the and in the of a social for (see The British philosopher Thomas in that in the of nature, is in the that that Darwin “the for among all the world from the of (Darwin The of these Darwinian can be by at two that are to be foundational for ecological sciences and environmental ethics, by and by the in the of the he it in the ecology we the of the economy of a ecology is the of all those complex to by Darwin as the of the for existence” the in the of this he ethics in the is a on of in the for is a of social from In these both and that the for is the of nature. that this and an of are that ethics evolves to ethics is as a that is But a historical that the for is only particular of of natural a from the social relationships as by in ecologists or environmental ethicists this social to be a of nature as the evolutionary and has a the of the of the for to of similar it, and that was and at that the in were not with the in and that and not In and for a But the of of for as to the and not of kind of between biological and for a reciprocal is ecologists nature through an its can to a nature in its If were a natural and of humans and other a cultural transformation of the cultural is a that represents a to the aim of relationships with the of biological and ecological If nature through the of this we in its forms of therefore, in its forms of a the Darwinian theory of the for and the theory of have been from society to nature, is to these theories from the natural world to the history of how has to an ethics based on the notion of social for or of the among and constitutes an of this ethics that can be to (Figure 1b, arrow It is that the Darwinian theory has also as a for a ethical that a sense of respect for all living ethical is illustrated by two metaphors by the of life” and the of life.” metaphors also two for both evolutionary-ecological sciences and environmental ethics The tree of depicts in sciences and an that inspires the ethical notion of based on among living The web of depicts in community and ecosystem ecology and an that the notion of based on the among living in and the of of the of Darwin The of all the of the have been by a I this largely the The and represent and those each represent the of by to and and on all a by I it has been with the of which with its and the of the and the with its and (Darwin pp. in Darwin these from a are as in or to the be called to the (Darwin pp. of the tree of was in the by that the history of on of the tree is still to evolutionary and based on and as to the evolutionary tree as all other biological and in the evolutionary Darwin not only stimulated a scientific understanding also an ethical of the kind of humans establish with other the of The of the evolutionary and his with the Darwinian that an of biological to a of we the natural in which we are and this a of by the of the of the similar also within the social and nature for a toward based on the of and on the in a similar to the of by the ethical implications of Darwinian evolutionary theory. In his a to the to the is a Darwin the first of the origin of was to all the of are only with other in the of should have by this a sense of with a to and a sense of the and of the pp. the between and both for an ethical and practical with the Darwinian evolutionary of to the (Darwin more ecological that Darwin and is the web of (see also Darwin's influence on and nature In the of Darwin the of the ecological among that are in the evolutionary tree of I to more how and in the of nature, are by a web of complex I have that the of to the of our the The of in any on the of which and the of is largely as on the of it is that the of a in in a might through the first of and of the of in that (Darwin pp. years later, this Darwinian of biological was by With an ecological from the of his and Charles the of the web of in the of his “The “The that on the an on the a and on the and on through to the which of the later, the and to this Darwinian in three of a Charles Darwin published a The of through of with on In it he the world its first understanding of the of as for the of and the of the world that the of the The vegetation is of a web of in which are and between and between and other between and pp. to the of Darwin's paragraph in the of It is to an with of with on the with and with through the and to that these from each and on each other in complex a manner, have all been by (Darwin by Darwin have from science to ethics. The tree of and the web of for the of in our The common of the evolutionary tree a of Darwinian evolutionary which the common biological nature and the origin humans all living It a sense of that by an of ethical respect the of our to a approach of environmental ethics that the notion of of the other the of the web of can to a environmental ethics based on the of for human on an ecological understanding of the between that “the vegetation is of a web of the modern the he could not that the and the basic he for life” this of the web of is by ecological in an to values to ecosystem and (see and based on this that biological and of as and to be to the of from the ecological web of which are to the of and human (see the and implications of for and other two implications are for the cultural influences in this First, for the Darwinian theory a cultural that a as as the Both theories human from place in nature. The theory of evolution human of the that we are in a common origin for all living that as among only in not in kind from other biological (see the Darwinian theory a kind of based of anthropocentrism (Figure 1b, arrow Second, with respect to the notion of biological and social progress and Darwin complex he was not a conceptual and was he In of his to the and Darwin the or with he not only also of those as he in The of The of the as other which is illustrated by the progress of the of and has been to and can how the is in the that the progress of the as as the character of the are the of natural (Darwin Darwin at ecological of complex and the implications of his of complex in which on for Darwin that the I have that the of or in the and or (Darwin pp. that the of could have a that in the of other has into community and ecosystem in biology. To or it is to understand place in the web of and to or biological and (see Darwin also to the the of can to the of In the of he that “the the of of has the of The of the in of has the of the How we of of the place of the (Darwin Darwin's of the of by is by ecological analyses of a major for and Darwin the his theory to to the of to to human impact on the natural environment (Figure 1b, arrow of Darwinian theory to a of the reciprocal influences of science and ethics. First, it is to to cultural and social in the genesis of this scientific theory. Second, and empirical were to Darwin's it is that The of have been had Darwin not the Third, the influences between science and culture, ethics, and the natural environment in the between evolutionary-ecological sciences and environmental ethics. these between science and ethics are not or in a sense as Darwinian theory has been a of for such contrasting ethics as social and (Figure 1b, arrow Finally, the character of the complex among science, ethics, culture, and the natural world, it is to reciprocal influences between sciences and ethics. The of these as and o

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OPENALEX

W2111289343

DOI

10.2307/1313650

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• DOI · https://doi.org/10.2307/1313650
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